君子 THE NOBLE MAN

君子 jūnzǐ: “noble man” or “gentleman”
Literally this term means the “son of a noble,” but it evolved with Kongzi’s use to refer to a man of noble character who embodies the primary virtues of “humanity” (ren 仁), “ritual” (li 禮), and “rightness” (yi 義). It is one of the most common terms in the Four Books, occurring 240 times.

PRIMARY VALUES:

仁 HUMANITY, 禮 RITUAL, 義 RIGHTNESS

仁 rén: “humanity” or “benevolence”
Ren is the virtue of “benevolence” or the inborn character of man which is “humanity.” As Kongzi said, “Is ren really that far off? I desire ren; in that case, ren arrives!”¹ The character (仁) is composed of the character for "man" (人) and the number "two" (二), symbolizing man in a group, which is the beginning of society. Ren always involves others. The well-known saying from the Doctrine of the Mean, “that which is humanity 仁, man 人 is,” plays on these two characters having the same sound, and describes the inborn character of man. A similar relationship exists in English: "humanity" (as in benevolence) and "humanity" (as in the species). However, ren is only one aspect of human nature and must be cultivated in order to be preserved and developed. This is the Confucian formula, and project: as a benevolent humanity grows, it crowds out other things. The character is used 284 times in the texts, equally distributed between the Discussions and the Mengzi.

禮 lǐ: “ritual; rite; ceremony” and “social custom, etiquette; propriety”
Li are rituals, which include both daily customs (bowing, handing objects with two hands, using respectful addresses) as well as periodic ceremonies (marriages, funerals, and graduations). Rituals are important for acting out one’s social roles which maintains social harmony. As Zhu Xi said “Ritual is nature's principles joined with culture; it is the norm and standard of human affairs.”² And always, having a proper inner state, such as feeling of ren, is necessary or the function of li is greatly depreciated. Proper performance of ritual is part of the curriculum for becoming a noble, meaning one of noble character who is worthy of upper class society. The character is used 161 times in the texts, equally distributed between the Discussions and the Mengzi.

義 yì: “rightness”
Yi is the value of doing what is appropriate or befitting to the situation and involves moral judgment, hence the translation of “rightness.” It is guided by customary social ritual (禮) in determining what is appropriate to the situation and by one's humanity (仁) in making moral judgments. In this way the three virtues of humanity, ritual, and rightness form a complete system. The legacy translation “righteousness” is too strongly reminiscent of the Christian tradition and “rightness” is really more representative of the general meaning. It is used 138 times, especially in the Mengzi.

SECONDARY VALUES:

信 TRUSTWORTHINESS, 智 WISDOM

信 xìn: “trustworthiness”
Xin is the value of trustworthiness, which is important across all relationships: father and son, husband and wife, advisor and ruler, older and younger, and between peers. It is a secondary value, as Youzi said, “Trustworthiness is close to rightness,“³ since rightness already includes being trustworthy. The term is used 80 times.

智 zhì: “wisdom”
Zhi refers to the ability to appraise people and situations and was considered one of the "five virtues" by the Han Dynasty. It is never used in the Discussions, but is used 33 times in the Mengzi.

Together, these form the Five Virtues (五常): humanity (仁), ritual (禮), rightness (義), trustworthiness (信), and wisdom (智).

RELATED TERM:

德 VIRTUE

德 dé: “virtue”
De is virtue, in general. The translation 'virtue' has a more 'real' sense than the word “morality,” which can be more superficial and subjective. It is used 109 times throughout the Four Books.

KEY CONCEPTS: REALITY & NATURE:

天 TIAN, 道 DAO

天 tiān: “the heavens” or “nature”
Tian literally means the sky, which encompasses the universe that we see at night. It is also used to refer to "nature" or the forces of the universe that generate and control the physical world. When a pupil asked Zhu Xi about the meaning of Tian in the classics he said, “This requires one's own capacity to discern, parse, and understand clearly. There are those who say it refers to the vast blue sky (蒼蒼), those who say it means the master or sovereign (主宰), and there are times when it simply means principle (理).”⁴ This is seen in Kongzi’s phrase "The four seasons circulate, all things are generated, but what do the heavens (i.e. nature) ever say?"⁵ It is commonly used in the saying "all under heaven" (天下), i.e. all the people and things under the sky, which were produced and are under the influence of Tian.

In the context of Confucian virtue ethics, Tian is a force that underlies and shapes the natural world, and that can serve as a guide for ethical behavior and decision-making: human beings can seek to align themselves with this natural order. It's worth noting that the Christian translation as "Heaven" gives a certain poetic feel, and is acceptable as long as we remember that, in this text, the character does not have any particular religious or spirit-world meaning. It is used 418 times, especially in the Mengzi and Doctrine of the Mean.

道 dào: “a way” or “path”
Dao literally means a road or path. In the Confucian sense, it refers to "the way of man" or civilization, unlike in the Daoist sense where it is often "the way of nature," which is beyond our control. The Confucian dao does not imply that man should be passive, as seen in Kongzi’s saying "It is man that can make the way great, and not the way that can make man great"⁶ Moreover, it is important to remember that it is not always "the Way" but simply "a way," as Kongzi’s phrase “Three years without a change from father’s way.“⁷ There are indeed many ways: the father’s way, the Confucian Way, and the one Great Way. So the meaning really depends on context.

This character is quite significant, not to be thought of as a Daoist-only term. Actually, all schools during this period of time, Daoism, Legalism, Moism, and Ruism, were “Way Architects,” and they used the term dao in describing their envisioned way. It is used 304 times all throughout the texts.

KEY CONCEPTS: EDUCATION:

學 LEARNING, 夫子 TEACHERS, AND 行 CONDUCT

學 xué: “learning” or “to study”
Xue refers to Confucian learning which is more the process of becoming a refined person in civilization, rather than merely acquiring book knowledge. It is the cultivation of character, the pursuit of knowledge, and the practice of social customs. It is not simply an intellectual pursuit, nor for one’s own retained benefit, but for the benefit of one’s family and society. The character is used 128 times, especially in the Discussions.

夫子 fūzǐ: “the teacher” or “our teacher”
Literally, 夫 means "man" and 子 is a respectful form of address. Together, they form a term of respect for a teacher or scholar, for example in reference to Kongzi in the Discussions. In a conservative Western school this might be “headmaster,” and some translators gone with “master.” In contemporary East Asian cultures, it is still customary to address teachers in a similar way, such as 楊老师 ("Teacher Yang") or 김상생님 ("Teacher Kim"), which does not mean "master." It is used 67 times in the Discussions and the Mengzi.

行 xíng: "conduct; practice" or "to act; to work"
This term functions in various ways, for example as referring to one's "conduct," or the "practice” of applying learning in daily life. As a verb it can mean “to act,” or “to work” describing function in accordance with Confucian principles. Philosophically, it holds significant meaning as it emphasizes action in the development of virtue. Merely learning and understanding principles is not enough—one must also put them into practice. It used 248 times, especially in the Mengzi.

KEY CONCEPTS: CULTURAL:

孝弟 FAMILY, AND 友 FRIENDS

孝 xiào: “family duty; family affection; parental obedience”
Xiao has no direct English translation because, while it is a universal human value found in all cultures, its manifestation in Sino-culture is distinct. Xiao involves showing respect, obedience, and affection towards one's parents, as well as repaying them for their sacrifices and maintaining the family's good reputation. It even extends beyond death in ancestor rituals. Xiao is seen as the root of social order.

The legacy translation of Christian missionaries from 150 years ago is "filial piety." However, this suffers in other ways aside from being too cryptic. Xiao is not "piety" in the sense of religious reverence, but rather the minimal amount of affection any humane person would feel for the one who gave them life and raised them. The lack of a clear emotional component makes "piety" an inadequate descriptor, as cold obedience alone cannot lead to the growth of humanity. It is used 55 times in the texts.

弟 tì: “brotherly respect” and “sibling duty”
Ti is respect and duties between younger and older brothers. The younger sibling has an obligation to respect the older one's experience, and the older sibling has a duty to guide the younger one. It is also used in the broader sense of respect for elders.

The concept of ti 弟, like with the broader concept of xiao 孝, emphasizes the importance of hierarchical relationships and the responsibilities that come with them. It promotes a sense of social order and stability, as well as the idea that individuals have a duty to respect and care for their family members. It is used 67 times in the texts.

友 yǒu: “peers” or “friends”
The Confucian concept of "friends" is more akin to peers who share similar values and goals than to a casual relationship between others who are quite different. The Chinese character 友 is composed of two parts: the left-hand 左 and the right-hand 又, which together represent two hands working together in a friendly and reciprocal way. Because of their shared ideal, which they want to advance, they can be loyal (忠) and trustworthy (信). Without that commonality, there is no real basis to expect either, and therefore no basis for you 友. Therefore, as Kongzi said: “do not have friends who are not like yourself”⁸ It is used 68 times in the texts.

¹ Discussions 7.30
² Zhu Xi’s commentary on Discussions 1.12
³ Discussions 1.13
⁴ Recorded Sayings of Zhu Xi, 1.22
⁵ Discussions 17.19
⁶ Discussions 15.28
⁷ Discussions 1.11
⁸ Discussions 1.8